Classically, the high-fat diet (e.g., obese laboratory rats, waxworms) has been implicated in obesity, an increase in the size of coelomic fat bodies, and an increase in hepatic fat. A host of factors can predispose to increased hepatic fat. One must remember that hepatic lipidosis is a metabolic derangement and not a single clinical disease. COOPER, in Reptile Medicine and Surgery (Second Edition), 2006 Anamnesis (History) and Physical Examination
All things being equal in the captive environment, growing amphibians have a much greater demand for calcium compared with mature amphibians. Ultraviolet B may help some amphibians convert vitamin D 2 to vitamin D 3, but this remains unproven. Check with a veterinarian for an appropriate source of vitamin D 3. Most vitamin sources do not have vitamin D 3 but carry vitamin D 2, which has not been shown to support normal skeletal mineralization in amphibians. Other sources of calcium may contain heavy metals such as lead in quantities that may interfere with normal metabolism. Calcium lactate, calcium citrate, and pharmaceutical grade calcium carbonate are excellent sources of pure calcium.
FEEDING MILKSNAKE WAXWORMS FREE
A pure calcium source free of other metals is the best choice for a supplement. Īll supplements are not created equal.Ĭrickets, fruit flies, mealworms, and waxworms are deficient in calcium and vitamin D 3 and will induce NSHP if fed to young growing amphibians without supplementation.2,4Įuthanasia may be necessary for amphibians that have significant skeletal lesions or show evidence of chronic pain following remineralization of the skeleton. 9 Finally, other dietary factors can influence vitamin A requirements in domestic animals these include levels of free nitrate in feed, inadequate dietary protein, and low dietary phosphorus. For instance, captive Wyoming toads with lingual SM and low liver retinol levels had higher levels of liver vitamin E (α-tocopherol) when compared with free-ranging toads (49 μg/g wet and 16 μg/g wet, respectively). 31-34 Interactions between fat-soluble vitamins that might influence the absorption of dietary vitamin A should also be considered. 2,30 Differences in lipid profiles between naturally consumed insect diets and diets fed in captivity may be important because of roles for fatty acids in absorption and metabolism of vitamin A and carotenoids. For example, zinc and vitamin A interact, both in the synthesis of retinol-binding protein required for vitamin A transport and as components of enzymes required for vitamin A metabolism. Several nutrient interactions might need to be considered when investigating the cause of hypovitaminosis A in captive animals.
Given that many captive amphibians are likely fed vitamin A–deficient diets, the frequent recognition of deficiency-associated disease in bufonids could represent high group-specific requirements for vitamin A, vitamin A precursors (carotenoids-see further on), or other nutrients related to vitamin A metabolism.Īs noted earlier, very little is known about amphibian nutrition as a result, captive feeding and nutrient supplementation practices are usually based on institutional preference or habit rather than scientific formulation. All of these situations can result in inadequate delivery of preformed vitamin A to captive animals and subsequent development of deficiency-related disease. 6,25-29 Investigation of STS in toads has revealed instances of inadequate dietary husbandry including feeding of insect-based diets without addition of vitamin supplements provision of vitamin supplements solely by dusting of prey items, which, if insects are not consumed immediately, has the disadvantage of losing dusting powder by attrition or insect grooming behavior and use of vitamin supplements that have been improperly stored (e.g., exposure to light or high heat and humidity) or have originated from bulk containers in extended use (more than 4 to 6 months). Most cultured invertebrates fed to captive amphibians, including domestic crickets (Acheta domestica), mealworms (Tenebrio molitor), superworms (Zophobas morio), waxworms (Galleria mellonella), fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster), silkworm larvae (Bombyx mori), and earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris), are poor sources of preformed vitamin A or carotenoids and require supplementation by dusting or gut-loading before use as prey items.
Pessier, in Current Therapy in Reptile Medicine and Surgery, 2014 Diet and Dietary Supplementation
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